Local Variables

Local variables may be accessed within the block of instructions in which they were declared. For example, when we write a main function, all variables declared in that block of code may be accessed any place after they have been initialized.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

int main() { 
    int a, b;
    string message = "The sum of a and b is: ";
 
    cin >> a >> b;
 
    cout << message << a + b << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Variables declared within a block of instructions such as an if-else statement or loop may only be used local to that block as well.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

int n = 10;
int res = 0;
for ( int i = 1; i <= n; i++ ) {
     int a = i*i;
     res += a;
}
 
cout << res << endl;

In the example above, variable a may only be accessed within the for loop.

As you may now know, variables declared within functions are also only local to that function.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

int factorial(int n) {
 
     int factorial = 1;
 
     for ( int i = 1; i <= n; i++ ) { 
          factorial *= i;
     }
 
     return 0;
}
 
int main() { 
    int n;
    cin >> n;
    int fac = factorial(n);
    cout << "Factorial of n: " << fac << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Global Variables

Global variables on the other hand may be accessed within every scope of the program. The use of global variables is usually discouraged since they may be modified from anywhere. They may be used to avoid having to pass in a variable that remains continuous throughout the program.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int bonus = 5;
bool flag = false;
 
// This function increases salary and adds the bonus
// if the flag is true
int increaseSalary(int n) { 
    if ( flag ) 
        return n + bonus;
    else 
        return n;
}
 
// This function increases the bonus
void increaseBonus(int n) { 
    bonus += n;
}
 
// This function changes the flag 
void setFlag(bool n) { 
    flag = n;
}
 
int main() {
    cout << "The bonus is currently: " << bonus << endl;
    int mySalary = 10;
    mySalary += increaseSalary(10);
    setFlag(!flag);
    mySalary += increaseSalary(10);
    cout << "My Salary is now: " << mySalary << endl
    return 0;
}

Only use global variables when absolutely needed

Remember, only use global variables if you absolutely need to. It is very cumbersome to debug a program with global variables if several functions are accessing and modifying their values. A good way to use them is possibly for a flag to run auxiliary functions to help decode a program if it its true.

Going further

Now that you understand how the scope of variables work, try answering the following questions.

1. Can two different functions declare variables with the same names?
2. If you declare a variable within the if clause, may you access it in the else clause?
3. If you declare a variable count in an if statement, can you access it within a nested if statement within that original if statement?
4. What is the output up the previous global variable example? What is the value of mySalary?
5. Write a program with a global boolean flag that determines whether to display auxiliary cout statements to help debug your code. (Example: Print out factorial at every iteration.)

For loops are different than while loops due to the way they function. This allows one to choose what type of loop to use depending on the problem. For example, while loops are useful for executing statements until a condition is met and a for loop is useful when you know how many iterations you must complete before you get your result.

A for loop works as follows:

1. The variable(s) is initialized
2. The condition is checked. If true, execute statements, else terminate for loop
3. Execute statements within for loop
4. Update variables and return to step B

Diagram of how a for loop works

The syntax is below:

for ( initialization; condition; update) {
 
// statements 
}

For Loop Example

In our previous tutorial, we learned how to count forwards and backwards. In this tutorial, we’ll do something more interesting. We’ll compute the summation from 0 to n, n being user input.

To compute the summation, we simply add up all numbers starting from 0 to n. For example, the sum of 5 would be 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15. Taking programming aside, the way we’d solve this step by step would be to have a running sum which we add to until we reach our desired n. Try programming this before you see the solution below.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

int n = 0;  // User input
 
int sum = 0; // Our running sum
 
cout << "Sum: ";
 
cin >> n;
 
// For loop declaration
// We use the variable i to denote an iteration
// In this example, we execute the following loop
// if i is less than or equal to the user input 
for ( int i = 0; i <= n; i++ ) {
 
    sum += i;
 
}

For example, if n was 3, the following loop would execute in the following manner.

i = 0; 0 <= 3
sum += 0;
sum = 0
 
i = 1; 1 <= 3
sum += 1;
sum = 1;
 
i = 2; 2 <= 3
sum += 2
sum = 3
 
i = 3; 3 <= 3
sum += 3
sum = 5
 
i = 4; 4 <= 3
// End of For Loop

For loops advanced

Some things to know about for loops:

• You don’t have to declare a variable within the initialization block of a for loop.
  

  int i;
  for ( i = 0; i < n; i++ )

• You may have multiple initializations, conditions, and updates if you use a comma in between them.
  

  for ( i = 0, j = 2; i < j; i++ )

• You can break out of a for loop using the following statement:
  

  break;

  This is useful for when you encounter a special case in your loop using if statements.

• Likewise you may use continue; statement.

Going further with For Loops

Now that you understand for loops, why not try the following?

1. Write the previous for loop using a while loop. This will make you understand when to use a for loop
2. Write a for loop that computes the factorial of n.
   

   For example, if n is 3, then the factorial would be fac(3) = 1 x 2 x 3 = 6;

3. Using two for loops (not nested), create a program that draws a triangle.
   

   For example, if n is 3, then the appropriate triangle would be

   *
   **
   ***
   **
   *

4. Using a nested for loop, create a program that will draw a right triangle.
   

   For example, if n is 3, then the appropriate triangle would be

   *
   **
   ***

The While Loop

The while loop is another control flow structure that allows the programmer continuously execute a block of instructions until a specific condition is met. Below is an example of a program that contains a while loop. The idea of the program is for the user to input a variable n, and the while loop will continuously print out and increase n until it is over 100.

Now that you understand the diagram, take a look at the syntax.

while ( condition ) { 
 
     // Statements 
 
}

With the previous diagram, let’s make the program that increases and prints out n until it reaches 100.

In order to become a programmer, its essential that you learn how to create a program based on a specification. So its good to try it out on your own before you look at the solution below.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

 
// Creating and initializing n
int n = 0;
 
// User prompt
cout << "Please enter a number to count to 100: ";
 
 
cin >> n;
 
// Beginning of while loop
while ( n < 100 ) {
 
     // Printing out n
     cout << n << endl;
 
    // Increasing n 
     n = n + 1;
 
} // End of While Loop
 
// Program continues

Going further with While Loops

Now that you learned how to create while loops, let’s have some more practice.

1. Add to the previous program an if statement that determines if the user entered a negative number. If they did, output a message and set n to 0 so it only counts from a positive number to 100.
2. Make a while loop that prints a number from a user inputted n, to 0. If the number is below zero, let the user know, and set n to 100.
3. Using nested while loops, create a program that asks the user for a number from 0 – 10.

   Then print out n stars on one line and print out n number of lines. For example,

   n = 3
   ***
   ***
   ***
   n = 2
   **
   **

Example of Control Flow

Boolean Comparison Operators

Before we teach you how to write these statements, we’ll show you the boolean comparison operators you may use for creating conditions. These condition statements will return either TRUE or FALSE which are useful in if statements.

Operator	Example	Description
>	a > b, a > 2, 4 > 2	Greater than
>=	a >=b, a >= 2, 4 >= 2	Greater than or equal to
<	a < b, a < 2, 4 < 2	Less than
<=	a <= b, a <=2, 4 <= 2	Less than or equal to
==	a == b, 2 == a	Equal to
!=	a != b, 2 != a	Does Not Equal to

You may use these boolean operators to compare data types of similar type. You may compare any of the C++ Data Types with each others whether they are literals such as 2, 3, “Hello”, or variables. If you compare mixed data types you will get different behavior.

Below are some examples of conditions. If they are literals, determine the conditions truth value.

2 < number
 
"Hello" == "HELLO"
 
'a' != 'A'
 
2.0 == 2

You may also use the && (and) and || (or) connectives in order to have multiple conditions. Below is an everyday example and after that some C++ examples.

 
// Returns true if both the 1st and 2nd conditions are true
2 < a && b > c
 
// Returns true if either the 1st or 2nd conditions are true
2 < a || b > c

Finally, you may also use the ! connective to make a condition have the opposite truth value. An example is below:

int a, b;
a = 2;
b = 3;
 
// The following would return TRUE
a < b 
 
// The following would return FALSE because the ! 
// negates the truth value between the parenthesis
! ( a < b )

C++ If Statement

We will now start by showing you the syntax for writing an if statement.

if ( condition ) { 

statements ...

}

Now, we’ll actually put it to some use. In our previous tutorial we learned about user input which will help us make things a lot more interesting. Let’s say we wanted to create a program that asks the user to guess a number and we’ll simply reply if it was the correct one. We’d do it in the following manner.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

int magicNumber = 27;
 
int guess;
 
cout << "Guess my magic number: ";
 
cin >> guess;
 
if ( magicNumber == guess ) {
     cout << "Congratulations! Correct guess!" << endl;
}

In the code above, the statement inside the if clause would execute if the condition were true. Therefore, if the user chooses our magic number 27, our program will congratulate the user.

If Statement Diagram

C++ If Else Statement

Well, what if they didn’t? We would want to give them another message saying it was incorrect. Your first guess might be making another if statement but we can use the else statement.

if ( condition ) { 

statements ...

} else { 

statements ...

}

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

// .. Previous code
 
if ( magicNumber == guess ) {
     cout << "Congratulations! Correct guess!" << endl;
} else { 
    cout << "Incorrect!" << endl;
}

In the previous code, if the user guess the number correctly, the program would congratulate the user. If the user did not guess the number correctly, it would display Incorrect!

If Else Statement

C++ If Else If Else Statement

Now, what if we wanted to actually let them know if their guess was too high or too low if it was incorrect? We can then use the else if statements.

if ( condition ) { 

statements ...

} else if ( condition ) { 

statements ...

} else { 

statements ...

}

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

// .. Previous code
 
if ( magicNumber == guess ) {
     cout << "Congratulations! Correct guess!" << endl;
} else if ( magicNumber > guess ) {
    cout << "Your guess is too low!" << endl;
} else {
    cout << "Your guess is too high!" << endl;
}

If Else Else If Statements

Nesting If Statements

You may also have nest if statements within if statements. An example is below.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

cin >> guess;
number = 25;
 
if ( number == guess ) {
 
     cout << "Now try guessing the second number!\n";
     // Guess a second number
     number = 56;
     cin >> guess;
 
     if ( number == guess ) { 
         cout << "Congratulations! You guess two numbers correctly!\n";
     } else { 
         cout << "Try next time!\n";
     }
} else { 
    cout << "Incorrect!\n";
}

Overview of If Statements

Some things to know about if statements are mentioned below.

1. Remember, the else statement is optional and you may have zero, one, or more else if statements.
2. For good practice always indent or more formally known as tab your code when its within an if statement. That way it’s easy to follow. Imagine going over nested if statements that don’t have tabs? You would have a hard time figuring out which statements belong where.

   1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

   if ( a > b ) { if ( c < 2 ) { cout << "Yes!"; } else { cout << "No!"; } } else { cout << "What?"; }

3. If you only have one statement within an if statement you may omit the {}’s. For good practice, just keep them. It’s easier for someone else to go back to read and add to your code.

   1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

   if ( a == b ) { cout << "Yes!"; }   // Is the same as   if ( a == b ) cout << "Yes!";

Going further with If Statement

Now that you know the basics of If Statements, why not do the following?

1. Create an if statement that contains a condition that is always true.
2. Are “Hello” and “HELLO” equivalent? What about the char ‘a’ and a string “a”?
3. Create a 3rd level deep if statement. The previous example shown was nested 2x.

Keep patient, in our next tutorial we will learn about for loops and then while loops. Once we get a good handle of control flow, we can make some interesting programs.

C++ Standard Output

If you recall, we have been using the cout object to display information on to the screen. Below, I’ll describe various ways to output strings, the contents of variables, expressions, and more.

Basic output with endl

Below is a simple example of printing out the string “Hello, World!” to the terminal accompanied by a newline.

1
2
3
4
5

// We first print out Hello World 
cout << "Hello, World!";
 
// We then add the following to create a new line
cout << endl;

The previous example is demonstrated above.

Basic output with variables

Now, we are going to display the contents of a variable. Notice how we can output more than one item with a single cout object.

1
2
3

int num = 5;
 
cout << num << endl;

Basic output with math expressions

We can also output arithmetic expressions. This by the way, is something you will hardly ever use but its good to know anyways since you’ll always want to save the result of an expression in a variable.

1

cout << 5 * 4 + 3 << endl;

Basic output with boolean expressions

Finally, we will demonstrate a simple example with a boolean expression. This will not print out true or false. It will print out either a 1 for true, or 0 for false. You also need the parenthesis, else the < operator will give you an error.

1

cout << (1 < 3)  << endl;

C++ Standard Input

For standard output we used the object cout and for standard input, we will use the object cin. Before we start with examples, there is are a couple of things you must know.

• User input is usually done through the keyboard and the terminal. Your program will halt at each user input and keep executing when the user enters a value and then presses enter
• The cin object will read in the type of object you tell it to. Therefore, if you wish to have a char, it will read a char. Same with an integer, float, and a string. If you mix things up, you will receive undesired behavior
• The user might provide you with invalid values and therefore require you to do error checking. We will leave this for a later topic.

Reading in a value

Below is an example of reading in a single and multiple values. Try it by changing the object type.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

// We declare and initialize the variable num to -1
int num = -1;
 
// We prompt the user for input
cin >> num;
 
// We declare three strings
string a, b, c;
 
// We read three strings from input
cin >> a >> b >> c;

Going further with input and output

Now that you understand the basics of input and output why not do the following?

1. Prompt the user for his First Name, Last Name, Age, City, and State in the following fashion.

   Enter your first name:
   Enter your last name:
   Enter your age:
   Enter your city:
   Enter your state:

   
   
   Then, output the results in the following fashion.

   Hello firstname lastname!
   I see you are age years old and live in city, state.

2. Now try declaring a variable without initializing it. Then output it. What happened?
3. Try reading in an int value, but give it a string. Output the variable and what happens?

C++ Variables

Variables are created through the use of identifiers. An identifier is a sequence of one or more digits, letters, or the underscore character. It also may not be a reserved word, have two consecutive underscores, or begin with a digit. A reserved word is simply a keyword that is reserved by the language such as: int, double, string.

Below, is an example of the creation and manipulation of variables.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

// Below we are creating two different variables of type int
int num = 5;
int num2 = 10;
 
// Below we are creating a variable of type in that stores the sum of the 
// previous two variables.
int sum = num + num2;

C++ Fundamental Data Types

For now, we will discuss a couple of the fundamental data types the C++ language has to offer. Later, we’ll learn how to create our own through the use of classes.

Declaring variables

In order to declare a variable, you need to specify the type of variable, identifier, and initialize it if you wish. Below are a couple of examples.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

// Declaring and initializing variables differently
int num1 = 5;
double num2;
num2 = 2.5;
 
// Declaring a list of variables
int a, b, c, d;
 
// Setting a boolean value
bool val = true;
 
// When you declare a character, you need to use the ''s
char e = 'b';

Some things to take into consideration are below:

• Uninitialized variables is a bad practice. If you forget, and try to use them later throughout your program they will contain garbage and will lead to undefined behavior for your program

Example of C++ Program with Variables

Below is a simple example of a program that uses what we just learned. Try it out for yourself and try new things as well.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

#include <iostream>
 
using namespace std;
 
int main() { 
 
     //Outputs to the terminal, followed by a newline character
     cout << "Welcome!\n";
 
     // Declaring some variables and initializing them
     int a, b, c;
     a = 3;
     b = 2;
     c = a + b;
 
     // Outputting c to the terminal as well as a new line
     cout << "The sum of a and b is: " << c << endl;
 
     return 0;

Further practice

You need further practice? Don’t worry, in the next few tutorials, we’ll learn how to use the different variable types you learned today. Just as long as you understand the material in this tutorial you are doing fine. Have any questions? Post them below.

In the next tutorial, we’ll be learning about global and constant variables as well as the scope of variables.

The Hello World program is introduced to new programmers as its the simplest program to write in many languages (except GUIs). The Hello World program we’ll be writing in C++ will display “Hello World!” to the terminal.

By now you must have your C++ programming environment set up, if not check out C++ Installation.

Writing your first program

The easiest way to learn how to program is by demonstrating a simple example. Simply compile the following code.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

#include <iostream>
 
using namespace std;
 
int main() 
{
 
     // Will display Hello World to the terminal
     cout << "Hello World!";
 
     return 0;
}

The basic structure of a C++ program

So if you were successful, you should have Hello World displayed in your terminal. Below, I’ll go ahead and describe the basic structure of a C++ program.

The following tells the compiler to include the following library since we’ll be using some of its functionality in our program.

#include <iostream>

We’ll save namespaces for a later tutorial as its a more advanced feature. For now, just know that functionality found in iostream is declared under a namespace std. This will be something that will be found in most of your programs.

using namespace std;

The following is a functional declaration which we’ll describe later. The purpose of the main function is that it points to where your C++ program will start executing always. The {}’s simply encapsulate the body of our program.

int main()

The following are known as comments. They are useful as notes to the programmer and others who wish to edit the code later on. Their purpose is to describe the functionality of a certain block of code. Best practice is to have clear and concise comments to let the reader know what to expect.

// Will display Hello World to the terminal

The following is known as a C++ statement as it terminated with a semicolon (;). The following cout statement belongs to the library and the std namespace. The cout statement is feeding the string “Hello World!” to standard output in which our case is usually a terminal.

cout << "Hello World!";

As mentioned before, our main function which expects an int value in return. The 0 denotes that the program terminated successfully.

return 0;

Overview of C++ program structure

Described above is the most basic of C++ programs. For the next couple of tutorials, we’ll be using the following format. Make sure you understand the basic gist as its imperative you understand the structure of a C++ program.

You have two options. You can write your code, compile, and run it using an Integrated Development Environment (IDE), or you can write your code in your favorite editor and compile it within a terminal. In order to receive the benefits of both options, try them both to see what you like using the most.

You might even want to try programming in a different operating system such as Ubuntu. To figure out how to do that make sure to check out 3 Methods for Installing Ubuntu using Windows.

Should I use an IDE or a plain ‘ol editor and compiler?

Personally, using an IDE is the easiest option. An IDE is a software environment that provides tools and resources to make programming for you easier. An IDE usually contains a source code editor, compiler. and a debugger. It also may have many neat features like auto-complete, syntax highlighting, and can point you to the exact line where the syntax or compile time errors were found. The only downside is that downloading an IDE with a compiler can be a pretty large download (>~75mb).

Using Eclipse (IDE)

The other option is to write code in your favorite editor and compile it within a terminal (~10mb to download). This is the path many students in universities are taught in their introductory courses. I learned this way and sometimes prefer it over using an IDE. This method is sometimes more simpler since you don’t need to create an entire project in an IDE to simply write some code out.

Using gvim and the terminal

Getting started with C++ and an IDE

You can get started writing C++ with an IDE on any platform such as Windows, Linux, and Mac. Below are a list of IDEs you may be interested in. They are ordered in my preference of usage. Make sure you download a version with a compiler.

Eclipse – Windows/Mac/Linux
CodeBlocks – Windows/Mac/Linux
Netbeans – Windows/Mac/Linux

Once you download the IDE, simply create the default C++ project. That should start you with the famous “Hello World” written for you. All you need to do is hit Build & Run and you should see the output in the terminal window like the picture of the IDE above.

Getting started with C++ with a compiler, terminal, and source editor

1. The first step is to download your compiler.

Mac – Correct me if I’m wrong, but you need to download Xcode.
Linux – Using the Synaptic Package Manager or the equivalent, download build-essential.

2. Open up your favorite text editor. For now gedit (Linux) or TextEdit(Mac) is fine. Now copy and paste the following code. Make sure you save it as main.cpp (cpp is the common extension of C++ files).

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
     cout << "Hello World!\n";
     return 0;
}

3. Open up your terminal, and navigate to main.cpp‘s location. To navigate within a terminal you can use the following commands.

//Change Directory to specified folder
cd foldername
 
//Go up one directory 
cd .. 
 
// List contents of directory
ls

4. To compile your program, simply type in the following.

g++ main.cpp

5. Now that your program is compiled, run it with the following.

./a.out

Shows steps 4 - 6

6. If done correctly, you should see a “Hello Word” outputted to the terminal!

Overview of C++ Installation

Did you have any problems with any of the steps? Let me know and I’ll address your issue. I am here to help. Once you learn once, you’ll be compiling and running your C++ programs left and right.

Recursive function that displays numbers

For our first example, let’s create a recursive function that displays a number. In order to do this, we create a function that prints a number to output, then we call itself.

1
2
3
4
5
6

void printnum(int n)
{
     cout << n << " ";
     printnum(n); // Recursive call
     return;
}

Unfortunately, the previous example displays behavior known as infinite recursion on any call. Depending on the environment you are programming in, you might receive a segmentation fault. This happens because each activation record of a function is pushed onto the run-time stack. When you have a function that runs indefinitely, you are bound to run out of space.

Example of Infinite Recursion

Base Cases in Recursion

In order to eliminate infinite recursion we introduce a base case. A base case is a condition that determines when to terminate a recursive function. For our previous example, we’ll introduce the following base case and also make sure we are reducing our input into a smaller case each call (otherwise, we’d never reach our base case).

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

void printnum(int n)
{
     // Base case
     if ( n == 0 ) 
          return;
     cout << n << " ";
 
     // Recursive call that reduces input into a smaller case
     printnum(n-1); 
     return;
}

Below is an example of the output of executing such a function.

1

printnum(5);

5 4 3 2 1

Example of printnum(3) and output to the console

Now, what happens if we execute printnum(-2)? We will never reach our base case and thus receive infinite recursion. In order to avoid this behavior, its essential that we create robust base cases that allow our recursive functions to terminate.

The following is the modified version of our recursive function.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

void printnum(int n)
{
     // Improved base case 
     if ( n <= 0 ) 
          return;
     cout << n << " ";
 
     // Recursive call that reduces input into a smaller case
     printnum(n-1);
     return; 
}

Things to remember about C++ Recursion

Below are some things that you should take into consideration when solving recursive problems in C++.

• Recursion in C++ is a very difficult subject. It takes dedication in order to understand and master the subject.
• The best way to solve recursive functions is to write down the problem on a piece of paper and identify how you are going to break down the problem into a smaller instance and when to terminate (base cases).
• A good way to visualize recursion is to draw the activation records by drawing the run time stack of a simple recursive call

Going further with C++ Recursion

Now that you know the basic concept, the best way to learn recursion is by solving problems.

Next: C++ Recursion Examples

Absolutely nothing. This tutorial is assuming you have no prior programming knowledge. Therefore, it would be serve as an excellent resource for people interested in learning to program for the very first time, or even people wanting to brush up on some skills. This tutorial is aimed at setting up your programming environment and teaching you the skills necessary to master beginner up to advanced topics.

What is C++?

C++ is a very popular general purpose programming language. It is taught at major universities and is widely used in the software industry. It may be used for network application, applications, embedded software, video games, and many other purposes.

Examples of C++ Programs

Let this help convince you. According to this page on C++ Applications there is a wide variety of programs written in C++. Below are a few examples.

• Adobe Systems such as Photoshop, Image Ready, Illustrator, Acrobat, and more.
• Amazon.com uses it for its software for large-scale e-commerce
• Apple uses it for their Finder, iPod user interface, and more
• Google uses it for its web search engine, Chrome browser, and more
• Intel
• IBM
• HP
• and the list goes on…

You see? C++ is a very popular language so its nice to know.

Why C++?

First of all, it’s fairly easy anyone can learn. Best of all, you’ll be learning about object orientated programming, basic control flow, data structures, functions, classes, recursion, and a wide variety of other topics. The skills you will develop along the way will make it easy for you to transition from one language to another later on as well. So don’t worry if you think you won’t put C++ to great use. You can, and worst case if you don’t, you can take your new found knowledge and simply learn how to do what you know, but in a different language.

Structure of tutorial

The following tutorials will mainly consist of short tutorials on the various subjects. That way you can learn at your own pace and don’t get overwhelmed. There will be plenty of examples you could try out in order to learn the language.